Carbohydrate Digestion

Carbohydrate Digestion

A very simple example of a digestion process is the hydrolysis of sucrose (common table sugar),

to produce glucose and fructose monosaccharides that can be absorbed through intestine walls to

undergo metabolism in the body. Each digestive hydrolysis reaction of carbohydrates has its own

enzyme. Sucrase enzyme carries out the reaction above, whereas amylase enzyme converts starch

to a disaccharide with two glucose molecules called maltose, and maltose in turn is hydrolyzed to

glucose by the action of maltase enzyme. A third important disaccharide is lactose or “milk sugar,”

each molecule of which is hydrolyzed by digestive processes to give a molecule of glucose and one of galactose.

Digestion can be a limiting factor in the ability of organisms to utilize saccharides. Many adults

lack the lactase enzyme required to hydrolyze lactose. When these individuals consume milk

products, the lactose remains undigested in the intestine, where it is acted upon by bacteria. These

bacteria produce gas and intestinal pain, and diarrhea may result. The lack of a digestive enzyme

for cellulose in humans and virtually all other animals means that these animals cannot metabolize

cellulose. The cellulosic plant material eaten by ruminant animals such as cattle is actually digested

by the action of enzymes produced by specialized rumen bacteria in the stomachs of such animals.

Stanley E. Manahan

Copyright © 2003 by CRC Press LLC

Current assessment of practical work in England


1. In England practical work is often seen as central both to the appeal and effectiveness
of science education and to the development of practical skills that will be of use in
Higher Education and/or the workplace. Indeed, The House of Commons Science and
Technology Committee (2002) reported that:

In our view, practical work, including fieldwork, is a vital part of science
education. It helps students to develop their understanding of science,
appreciate that science is based on evidence and acquire hands-on skills that are
essential if students are to progress in science.
(para. 40)

2. By ‘practical skills’ we mean those skills the mastery of which increases a student’s
competence to undertake any type of science learning activity in which they are
involved in manipulating and/or observing real objects and materials.

3. In a report on the testing of practical skills in science for ages 11, 13 and 15, Welford,
Harlen and Schofield (1985) suggested, that “the assessment of practical skills may
be possible from pupils’ reports or write-ups – provided that they have actually
carried out the practical or investigation prior to putting pen to paper” (p. 51).
However, it is our opinion that practical skills are, in some cases, best assessed
directly. For example, whilst a conceptual understanding of the topology of knots
and manifolds might well be assessed by a written task the most effective means of
assessing whether a student is competent in tying their shoe laces is, we would
argue, to watch them as they attempt to tie them.

4. As such, we feel that a useful distinction can be made between what we refer to as
direct assessment of practical skills (DAPS) and indirect assessment of skills (IAPS)1
.
The former, DAPS, refers to any form of assessment that requires students, through
the manipulation of real objects, to directly demonstrate a specific or generic skill in
a manner that can be used to determine their level of competence in that skill. An
example of this would be if a student was assessed on their skill in using an ammeter
and this was determined by requiring them to manipulate a real ammeter and use it
within a circuit to take readings and for these readings to need to be within an
acceptable range for the student to be credited.

5. In contrast, IAPS relates to any form of assessment in which a student’s level of
competency, again in terms of a specific or generic skill, is inferred from their data
and/or reports of the practical work that they undertook; for example, when a
student writes up an account of the reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium
carbonate chips in a way that the marker would not be certain if the student is
faithfully writing what they have just done or simply remembering what they have
previously done or been told about this reaction.

6. A common example of the use of both DAPS and IAPS to assess practical skill and 

conceptual understanding respectively, and one that we consider provides a useful 

analogy, is the UK Driving Test. In this example not only does the candidate have to 

demonstrate a sufficient level of competency in terms of practical driving skills out 

on the road (DAPS) but they must also pass an on-line test to assess their 

understanding of how to drive a car safely and competently (IAPS). Table 1 shows a 

comparison between DAPS and IAPS.

Improving the assessment of practical work in school science 

Professor Michael Reiss 

Institute of Education, University of London 

Dr Ian Abrahams 

Department of Education, University of York 

Rachael Sharpe 

Department of Education, University of York 

 October 2012 

http://www.gatsby.org.uk/~/media/Files/Education/Improving%20the%20assessment%20of%20practical%20work%20in%20school%20science.ashx

.... source

RESISTANCE (CONDUCTIVITY).

THE three electrical quantities which the physical chemist has most frequently to measure are resistance or its reciprocal, conductivity, current strength, and electromotive force. In other words, the three quantities involved in the equation :

I = E / R

Conductors of electricity are usually divided into two classes, though there is much doubt as to whether there is any true distinction between them: (1) those which conduct the current without suffering chemical decomposition, and (2)those which undergo chemical change when traversed by the electric current. To the first class belong the metals and carbon, while to the second belong the solutions of many substances which undergo decomposition at the poles. It is with the second class of conductors that we are chiefly concerned. These conductors are known as electrolytes, and include chiefly the solutions of acids, bases, and salts. There are many substances which in solution do not conduct the electric current, and these are known as non-electrolytes; among these may be mentioned the alcohols, the ketones, and the hydrocarbons.

Specific and Molecular Conductivity. The specific resistance of a conductor is the electrical resistance of a centimeter cube of it when the current flows through it from one face to the face opposite. Specific resistance is wholly dependent upon the nature of the conductor. Denoting the specific resistance by s', and the length and cross-sectional area of the conductor by I and a respectively, then the resistance is

Since conductivity is the reciprocal of resistance, it follows that the specific conductivity of the conductor is

 Conductors of the second class, as has been said, consist of solutions of an electrolyte in some solvent, and since liquids have no definite form it is obvious that the above definition of specific conductivity does not apply. Since the conductivity of solutions depends upon the dissolved electrolyte, we select the gram-molecular weight of dissolved substance in a litre as the basis of a definition which shall render the resistances of all solutions comparable. Consider a litre of solution containing a gram-molecular weight placed between two electrodes which are separated by a distance of 1 cm. The cross-section will be 1000 cm². This will have 1/1000 the resistance or 1000 times the conductivity of a centimetrecube of the same solution.

If v denotes the number of cubic centimetres of any solution containing a gram-molecule of dissolved substance, and s represents the specific conductivity of a centimeter cube of the solution, the molecular conductivity µ is

Where g gram-molecules of dissolved substance are contained in a litre of solution, we have as a perfectly general expression

If the specific conductivity be referred to a cylinder of solution 100 cms. in length and 0.1 cm. in cross-section, then obviously (1) and (2) become

Thus when solutions of the same concentration are employed their molecular conductivities are directly comparable.

Wheatstone's Bridge.

For the measurement Of all but very high or very low resistances the Wheatstone's bridge

 

is the most convenient. It consists of a combination of resistances. It is obvious that in the divided circuit from C to A there must be a point on the branch CDA which will have the same potential as a point on the branch CEA. Let us imagine that by means of the galvanometer G two such points have been found, and let these points be denoted by D and E. Then we have the following proportion:

From this equation it is evident that if the values of any three of the four resistances are known the other one is determined. Let us imagine the resistance-box to be inserted hi the arm R and the unknown resistance to be placed in the arm X; then we can alter the position of the point E until the galvanometer shows no deflection, and thus determine the lengths of CE and AE. Since resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor, it follows that the values of r₃ and r₄ are proportional to the lengths AE=l₁ and CE=l₂, or

The most convenient form of the Wheatstone 's bridge is the slide-wire-metre bridge, Fig. 67. In this form of bridge

the conductor AEC, corresponding to the similarly lettered portion of Fig. 66, is made of a thin uniform wire one metre long, the point E being determined by a sliding contact which moves over a millimetre scale. The arms CD and DA of the bridge consist of heavy copper straps which offer inappreciable resistance. The lettering in the two diagrams being the same, theMatter becomes self-explanatory. A single determination of the position of the index is not reliable owing to variations in the size of the wire and to lack of precision hi determining the point of balance. For these reasons the mean of a series of observations should be taken. When a direct current is passed through the solution of an electrolyte bubbles of gas appear on the electrodes after a very short time, or, as we say, polarization sets in. Polarization causes a counter E.M.F., which makes the accurate measurement of conductivity an impossibility. This difficulty has been overcome by Kohlrausch, who introduced the use of the alternating current.

The alternating current is furnished by a small inductorium, the wires from the secondary of which are connected with the ends of the bridgewire. Since the galvanometer cannot be used with the alternating current, it is replaced by a telephone. The inductorium is best placed in another room from that in which the bridge is placed, so that the sound of the coil can only be heard through the telephone. The sliding contact is then moved along the bridge-wire until a point is found where the sound of the coil either entirely vanishes or attains a minimum of intensity. This point is the position of balance between the arms of the bridge.

Before the Wheatstone's bridge is used the wire should be carefully calibrated. Of the several methods in use for this, that of Strouhal and Barus is best adapted to the physico-chemical laboratory.

LABORATORY EXERCISES PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

BY

FEEDEKICK H. GETMAN, PH.D.,

Fellow by Courtesy of The Johns Hopkins University,

Carnegie Research Assistant.

Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press, Inc., 2000 Corporate Blvd. N. W., Boca Raton, FL 33431.Comments may also be sent by electronic mail to drlide@post.harvard.edu.

ENERGY EQUIVALENT

AUGMENTED LEARNING

AUGMENTED LEARNING

Augmented learning is an on-demand learning technique where the environment adapts to the learner. By providing remediation on-demand, learners can gain greater understanding of a topic and stimulate discovery and learning.

Technologies incorporating touchscreens, voices and interaction have demonstrated the educational potential that scholars, teachers and students are embracing. Instead of focusing onmemorization, the learner experiences an adaptive learning experience based upon the current context. The augmented content can be dynamically tailored to the learner's natural environment by displaying text, images, video or even playing audio (music or speech). This additional information is commonly shown in a pop-up window for computer-based environments.

Most implementations of augmented learning are forms of e-learning. In desktop computing environments, the learner receives supplemental, contextual information through an on-screen, pop-up window, toolbar or sidebar. As the user navigates a website, e-mail or document, the learner associates the supplemental information with the key text selected by a mouse or other input device. Augmented learning has also been deployed on mobile, touchscreen devices including tablets.

Augmented learning is closely related to augmented intelligence and intelligence amplification. Augmented intelligence applies information processing capabilities to extend the processing capabilities of the human mind through distributed cognition. Augmented intelligence provides extra support for autonomous intelligence and has a long history of success. Mechanical and electronic devices that function as augmented intelligence range from the abacus, calculator, personal computers and smart phones. Software with augmented intelligence provide supplemental information that is related to the context of the user. When an individual's name appears on the screen, a pop-up window could display person's organizational affiliation, contact information and most recent publications.

In mobile reality systems, the annotation may appear on the learner's individual "heads-up display" or through headphones for audio instruction.

What is augmented reality?

In its simplest form, augmented reality is the layering of information over a real-world environment. To get an idea of what this means, imagine watching a football game on television. The first down line, the advertisements that hover over the field, and those drawings the commentators make on replays are all forms of augmented reality.

One of the most visible entries into the AR scene is Google Glass. The device used for Google Glass looks just like a pair of eyeglasses. The lenses are actually tiny screens through which the wearer can see the world as usual, as well as superimposed data and images, thus completely changing their experience. The device responds to voice commands and offers numerous options, such as a browser, video recorder and sharing tools that allow the user to be connected in a meaningful way.

What augmented reality means for education

EmergingEdTech illustrated a few of the most anticipated ways Google Glass will likely be used in education. Text translations in real time could immerse students in a foreign language, research could be done on the go, and the ease of video and imaging could make presentations and reports much more dynamic. Students could even use Google Glass to bolster their portfolios by capturing first-hand demonstrations of their work.

Some mobile augmented reality apps allow users to simply scan an object with a smartphone or tablet to receive a host of information about it, delivered in everything from video streaming to slideshows to audio. Many use GPS technology and image recognition to offer insight on locations, maps and geographical features. Some work with textbooks to provide 3D images of the material presented on the page.

A joint chapter report from Harvard and Radford Universities on Augmented Reality Teaching and Learning[PDF] offers an excellent example of how devices like Google Glass can broaden the educational spectrum. Imagine a student approaching an oak tree. The device immediately offers video or slide show information on the habitat the tree is in and the animals that make a home there. If the tree has been earmarked as part of an educational initiative, the student could point their device at a placard near the tree, which would then prompt a 3-D digital view of the tree, including the inside structure. This hands-on virtual learning could provide students with a much deeper understanding of the subject, as well as better retention of the material.

But AR isn't just for helping students learn -- it can also be an excellent tool for teachers to learn about their students. The Augmented Lecture Feedback System, developed by scientists at Spain's Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, is a great example. The system allows teachers to look over their room of students and see icons above their heads, activated by the student's cell phones, which tell the teacher whether the students understand the lecture material being taught. This tool is helpful for teachers who want to adjust their instruction technique on the fly, and also allows them to pinpoint students who need help but might not be comfortable with speaking up in class.

The future of augmented reality

Augmented reality is expected to pack such a punch that the market for the innovative technology has already grown dramatically. A press release from MarketsandMarkets predicts that the virtual reality and AR market will be worth $1.06 billion by 2018. And that figure doesn't even include mobile-based augmented reality. Since mobile devices are on the cutting edge of the technology, the worth of the market could actually be much higher.

As the use of smartphones continues to grow and virtual education becomes the norm rather than the exception, augmented reality is sure to find a place in the classroom -- whether it be a brick-and-mortar institution or a digital classroom that seamlessly blends the physical world with the virtual one.

molecular weight experiment

GRAM MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF CARBON DIOXIDE

WILS BEHGSTHOM, M.S.

and

MCIRLYS HOWELLS, Ph.D.

Carbon dioxide occurs as a variable component in the atmosphere. It is formed by the decay, fermentation, and combustion of organic matter. In this experiment, carbon dioxide will be produced by reacting marble chips, predominantly CaC03, with hydrochloric acid. To obtain dry carbon dioxide, the gas is bubbled through a concentrated sulfuric acid which acts as a dessicant and collected in an Erlenmeyer flask.
The procedure involved in the determination of the molecular weight of carbon dioxide is called the gas density or vapor density method. In some texts it will be referred to as the Dumas method named for the Frenchman who is given credit for originating the method. It is based on the principle that equal volumes of gases contain the same number of molecules at the same temperature and pressure. This principle represents Avogardo’s Law which has been used to define a standard molar volume of any gas, 2 2 . 4 liters, at 1 atmosphere pressure (760 torr) and 273 K ( O oC ) . The ideal gas law, PV = nRT when solved for volume at STP defines this standard volume. If n, number of moles, in the ideal gas law is redefined as mass of gas/gram molecular weight (GMW) the formula can be rearranged to solve for the gram molecular weight by using measured values obtain in the laboratory for any PV gas sample. The variables in the formula are mass (grams), R - gas law constant (0.0821 liter-atm/mole-K), T - temperature (degrees Kelvin), P - pressure (atmospheres), and V - volume
(liters). Alternatively, the volume of gas measured at laboratory conditions could be corrected to the volume which it would occupy at STP. A simple proportion relationship would then be used to
mass of collected aaS = GMW volume occupy at STP 22.4 liters solve for the GMW.

Procedure
Take two clean, dry, marked Erlenmeyer flasks and obtain mark the bottom position of the stopper with a piece of tape. Weigh the flasks to the nearest 1 mg and record the weight. Record the laboratory temperature and pressure. Using CRC Handbookof Chemistry and Physics, record the density of air at laboratory conditions.
~ rubber stoppers that fit each tightly. Stopper the flasks and
In the fume hood, set up the apparatus as shown in the
following diagram. This will require that a number of right angle
glass bends must be produced by you. The student should read
glass cutting (830 - 8321, glass polishing (835 -836) and glass
bending (840 - 841) in the Chemical Technician's Ready Reference
Handbook, CTRRH. Remember to lubricate glass with glycerin
before inserting it into the tubing or stoppers. Place 40 g of
marble chips in a generating flask and place approximately 30 ml
of concentrated sulfuric acid, H2SO4 , in the bubbler bottle.
Be sure to check all of the rubber and glass tubing for
constrictions or blockage as the apparatus is assembled. Use a
a paper punch and 3 by 5 index card to make the paper cover for
the collection flask. Making sure that the screw clamp is closed
between the funnel and generator, add approximately 50 ml of
6M HC1 to the funnel. The liquid level in the funnel should never
exceed three-fourths of its total volume capacity nor should it be
allowed to drain completely since air would enter the generator.
Record in your laboratory notebook the handling precautions, and
the spillage and disposal procedures for all chemicals used in
the experiment from MSDS notebook.
Opening the screw clamp slightly, allow the HC1 solution to
pass from the funnel onto the marble chips. A moderate rate of gas
generation should be maintained and can be monitored by watching
the bubbler bottle. The generator should be carefully shaken
occasionally to avoid the'use of an unnecessary excess of HC1.
Permit the gas to flow for 5 minutes to ensure the displacement of
air in the apparatus. Touch the bottom of the generator flask and
record the temperature effect. Remove the paper cover and delivery
. tube from the collection flask and quickly insert a rubber stopper
to the marked position. Insert the delivery tube into a second flask
to collect a sample while weighing the first flask to the nearest
0.001 g. Alternate sample collection in this fashion until a
constant weight (50.005 g) is obtained for both flasks. When
all mass measurements have been completed, fill each of the
flasks with water to the marked position and measure the volume of
water using a graduated cylinder. To disassemble, first loosen
stopper on the generator flask to avoid siphoning concentrated
sulfuric acid into the generator. Drain the HC1 from the funnel
into a beaker and use proper disposal procedures for excess acid in
the beaker, generator and bubbler bottle. Remember that
concentrated solutions are always poured into more diluted solutions.
To determine the weight of carbon dioxide it is necessary to
calculate the weight of air in the flasks at the initial weighing.
The density of air at laboratory conditions is multiplied times
the volume of the flask to obtain mass of air. The mass of air is
then subtracted from the initial flask weight to obtain weight of
the stopper and flask. This is used to determine the mass of carbon
dioxide collected. Using one of the two methods outlined in the
introduction, calculate the gram molecular weight of carbon dioxide
for each trial and the average value. Calculate the relative error
for your results.
Exchange two clean, dry 250 ml flasks at the stockroom for
two filled with samples of unknown gases. Do not disturb the
'stopper or warm the flask unnecessarily by handling. Mark the
position of the stopper and weigh to nearest 0.001 g. In the hood
remove the stopper and displace the unknown gas with laboratory
air by use of the aspirator. Replace the stopper and weigh the
flask of air accurately. Fill the flask with water to the mark
and measure the volume using a graduated cylinder. Repeat the
calculations that were necessary to determine the gram molecular
weight of carbon dioxide.

Termodinamika : kerja reversibel dan irreversibel

Kerja Reversibel dan irreversibel

Pertimbangkan sistem yang sama seperti sebelumnya: sejumlah gas berada di dalam silinder dengan suhu konstan T. Kita mengekspansi gas dari keadaan T, P₁, V₁ menjadi keadaan T, V₂, P₂, dan kemudian kita kompresi gas tersebut ke keadaan semula. Gas ini telah mengalami perubahan siklik kembali dari keadaan akhir ke keadaan awal. Misalkan kita melakukan siklus ini oleh dua proses yang berbeda dan menghitung pengaruh kerja W_cy untuk setiap proses.

Proses I. Ekspansi satu tahap dengan P_op = p₂; kemudian kompresi satu tahap P_op = p₁. Kerja yang dihasilkan dari ekspansi dengan pers. (4.4)

                                                                              Wexp = P2(V2 - V1)

Ketika kerja yang dihasilkan oleh kompresi sebesar

                                                                              Wcomb = P1(V1 - V2)

Rangkaian pengaruh kerja pada siklus adalah penjumlahan dari kedua persamaan di atas

                                     Wcy = P2(V2 - V1) + P1(V1 - V2) = (P2 - P1) - (V2 - V2)

Sejak V₂ – V₁ adalah positif, dan P₂ – P₁ adalah negatif, W_cy adalah negatif. Rangkaian kerja telah hilang dalam siklus ini. Sistem telah dikembalikan ke keadaan awal, tetapi lingkungannya belum; massa akan

lebih rendah di lingkungan setelah siklus ini.

Proses II. Pembatasan ekspansi multi tahap dengan P_op = p; kemudian pembatasan kompresi multi tahap dengan P_op = p.

Dengan pers. (4.5), kerja yang dihasilkan dalam ekspansi adalah

(Perubahan tanda dalam integral kedua dipengaruhi oleh pertukaran batas integral).

Jika perubahan dilakukan dengan metode kedua, sistem dikembalikan ke
keadaan awal, dan lingkungan juga dikembalikan ke kondisi awalnya, karena tidak ada pengaruh rangkaian kerja yang dihasilkan.

Misalkan suatu sistem mengalami perubahan keadaan melalui urutan tertentu dari keadaan intermediate dan kemudian dikembalikan ke keadaan semula dengan urutan yang sama melintasi keadaan dalam urutan terbalik. Kemudian jika lingkungan juga dikembalikan ke keadaan aslinya, perubahan ke arah sebaliknya adalah reversibel. Proses berhubungan adalah proses reversibel. Jika lingkungan tidak dikembalikan ke keadaan semula setelah siklus, perubahan dan proses adalah irreversibel.

 Jelaslah bahwa proses kedua yang baru saja dijelaskan adalah proses yang reversibel, sedangkan proses yang pertama adalah irreversibel. Terdapat karakteristik penting lain dari proses reversibel dan ireversibel. Dalam proses ireversibel yang baru saja dijelaskan, satu massa ditempatkan pada piston, penahan dilepaskan, dan piston di gerakkan ke atas dan berada di posisi akhir. Pada posisi tersebut, terjadi keseimbangan internal gas, arus konveksi ditetapkan, dan suhu berubah-ubah. Sebuah rentang waktu tertentu dibutuhkan gas untuk setimbang di bawah kondisi baru. Situasi yang sama berlaku pada kompresi irreversible. Sifat ini kontras dengan ekspansi reversibel yang pada setiap tahap tekanan berlawanan hanya berbeda sangat kecil dari tekanan kesetimbangan dalam sistem, dan volume meningkat sangat kecil. Dalam proses reversibel yang keseimbangan internal gas berubah sangat kecil dan di dalam batas tidak berubah sama sekali.

Oleh karena itu, pada setiap tahap dalam perubahan reversibel, sistem tidak berawal dari kesetimbangan oleh jumlah lebih dari jumlah yang sangat kecil.

Jelaslah, kita tidak bisa benar-benar melakukan perubahan reversibel. Suatu rentang waktu tak terbatas akan diperlukan jika peningkatan volume pada setiap tahap benar-benar sangat kecil. Proses reversibel bagaimanapun juga bukanlah proses nyata, tetapi proses ideal. Proses nyata selalu ireversibel. Dengan kesabaran dan keterampilan, reversibilitas dapat didekati, tetapi tidak dapat dicapai. proses reversibel sangat penting karena pengaruh kerja terkait dengan proses tersebut yang menggambarkan nilai maksimum atau minimum. Jadi limit ditetapkan pada kemampuan perubahan tertentu untuk menghasilkan kerja, dalam kenyataannya kita akan mendapatkan lebih sedikit, dan kita tidak boleh berharap untuk mendapatkan lebih banyak kerja yang dihasilklan.

Pada siklus isoterm yang dijelaskan di atas, kerja yang dihasilkan pada siklus irreversible bernilai negatif, yaitu kerja yang telah hilang. Ini merupakan karakteristik mendasar setiap perubahan ireversibel dan juga setiap perubahan siklus isotermal yang nyata. Jika sistem dikondisikan pada suhu konstan dan mengalami perubahan siklik oleh proses ireversibel (proses nyata), sejumlah kerja dihilangkan di lingkungannya. Hal ini sebenarnya pernyataan hukum kedua termodinamika. Pengaruh kerja terbesar akan dihasilkan dalam siklus isotermal reversibel, dan ini, sebagaimana telah kita lihat, W_cy=0. Oleh karena itu kita tidak dapat berharap untuk mendapatkan jumlah positif kerja di lingkungan
dari perubahan siklus sistem yang dikondisikan pada suhu konstan.

Pemeriksaan argumen yang disajikan di atas menunjukkan bahwa kesimpulan umum yang dicapai tidak bergantung pada fakta bahwa sistem dipilih untuk ilustrasi yang terdiri dari gas, kesimpulan adalah valid terlepas dari bagaimana sistem dibentuk. Oleh karena itu untuk menghitung kerja ekspansi yang dihasilkan dalam perubahan dari sistem apapun kita menggunakan pers. (4.4), dan untuk menghitung kerja yang dihasilkan dalam perubahan reversibel, kita menetapkan P_op = p dan menggunakan pers. (4.5).

Dengan modifikasi sesuai argumen, kesimpulan umum yang bisa dicapai ditampilkan dengan benar untuk setiap jenis kerja: kerja listrik, kerja yang dilakukan terhadap medan magnet, dan sebagainya. Untuk menghitung jumlah dari jenis lain dari kerja kita tidak akan menggunakan integral dari tekanan terhadap volume, melainkan integral dari gaya yang timbul dalam perpindahan.